專業術語表

A

接納

acceptance 　conformity that involves both acting and believing in accord with social pressure.

適應水平現象

adaptation-level phenomenon 　the tendency to adapt to a given level of stimulation and thus to notice and react to changes from that level.

攻擊性

aggression 　physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone. In laboratory experiments, this might mean delivering electric shocks or saying something likely to hurt another's feelings. By this social psychological definition, one can be socially assertive without being aggressive.

利他主義

altruism 　a motive to increase another's welfare without conscious regard for one's self-interests.

仲裁

arbitration 　resolution of a conflict by a neutral third party who studies both sides and imposes a settlement.

態度

attitude 　a favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or someone, exhibited in one's beliefs, feelings, or intended behavior.

態度免疫

attitude inoculation 　exposing people to weak attacks upon their attitudes so that when stronger attacks come, they will have refutations available.

吸引力

attractiveness 　having qualities that appeal to an audience. An appealing communicator (often someone similar to the audience) is most persuasive on matters of subjective preference.

歸因理論

attribution theory 　the theory of how people explain others' behavior; for example, by attributing it either to internal dispositions (enduring traits, motives, and attitudes) or to external situations.

似動現象

autokinetic phenomenon 　self (auto ) motion (kinetic ). The apparent movement of a stationary point of light in the dark. Perhaps you have experienced this when thinking you have spotted a moving satellite in the sky, only to realize later that it was merely an isolated star.

自動加工

automatic processing 　“implicit”or intuitive thinking that is effortless, habitual, and without awareness.

易得性直覺

availability heuristic 　an efficient but fallible rule-of-thumb that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory. If instances of something come readily to mind, we presume it to be commonplace.

迴避型依戀

avoidant attachment 　relationship style marked by dismissive detachment.

B

談判

bargaining 　seeking an agreement through direct negotiation between parties to a conflict.

行為確證

behavioral confirmation 　a type of self-fulfilling prophecy whereby people's social expectations lead them to act in ways that cause others to confirm their expectations.

行為病理學

behavioral medicine 　an interdisciplinary field that integrates and applies behavioral and medical knowledge about health and disease.

信念固著

belief perserverance 　persistence of one's initial conceptions, as when the basis for one's belief is discredited but an explanation of why the belief might be true survives.

偽途徑

bogus pipeline 　a procedure that fools people into disclosing their attitudes. Participants are first convinced that a machine can use their psychological responses to measure their private attitudes. Then they are asked to predict the machine's reading, thus revealing their attitudes.

旁觀者效應

bystander effect 　the finding that a person is less likely to provide help when there are other bystanders.

C

宣洩

catharsis 　emotional release. The catharsis view of aggression is that aggressive drive is reduced when one“releases”aggressive energy, either by acting aggressively or by fantasizing aggression.

說服的中心途徑

central route to persuasion 　persuasion that occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.

溝通渠道

channel of communication 　the way the message is delivered—whether face to face, in writing, on film, or in some other way.

臨床心理學

clinical psychology 　the study, assessment, and treatment of people with psychological difficulties.

共事者

co-actors 　co-participants working individually on a noncompetitive activity.

認知不協調

cognitive dissonance 　tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions. For example, dissonance may occur when we realize that we have, with little justification, acted contrary to our attitudes or made a decision favoring one alternative despite reasons favoring another.

凝聚力

cohesiveness 　a“we feeling”; the extent to which members of a group are bound together, such as by attraction for one another.

集體主義

collectivism 　giving priority to the goals of one's groups (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly.

伴侶之愛

companionate love 　the affection we feel for those with whom our lives are deeply intertwined.

互補性

complementarity 　the popularly supposed tendency, in a relationship between two people, for each to complete what is missing in the other. The questionable complementarity hypothesis proposes that people attract those whose needs are different, in ways that complement their own.

順從

compliance 　conformity that involves publicly acting in accord with social pressure while privately disagreeing. Obedience is acting in accord with a direct order.

同謀者

confederate 　an accomplice of the experimenter.

驗證性偏見

confirmation bias 　a tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions.

衝突

conflict 　a perceived incompatibility of actions or goals.

從眾

conformity 　a change in behavior or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure.

控制加工

controlled processing 　“explicit”thinking that is deliberate, reflective, and conscious.

相關研究

correlational research 　the study of the naturally occurring relationships among variables.

反事實思維

counterfactual thinking 　imagining what might have happened, but didn't.

信度

credibility 　believability. A credible communicator is perceived as both expert and trustworthy.

邪教組織

cult (also called a new religious movement) 　a group typically characterized by (1) distinctive ritual and beliefs related to its devotion to a god or a person, (2) isolation from the surrounding“evil”culture, and (3) a charismatic leader. (A sect, by contrast, is a spinoff from a major religion.)

文化

culture 　the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

D

事後解說

debriefing 　in social psychology the post experimental explanation of a study to its participants. Debriefing usually discloses any deception and often queries participants regarding their understandings and feelings.

欺騙

deception 　occurs in research when participants are misinformed or misled about the study's methods and purposes.

去個體化

deindividuation 　loss of self-awareness and evaluation apprehension; occurs in group situations that foster responsiveness to group norms, good or bad.

需要特徵

demand characteristics 　cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected.

因變量

dependent variable 　the variable being measured, so-called because it may depend on manipulations of the independent variable.

抑鬱現實主義

depressive realism 　the tendency of mildly depressed people to make accurate rather than self-serving judgments, attributions, and predictions.

性格歸因

dispositional attribution 　attributing behavior to the person's disposition and traits.

表露互惠效應

disclosure reciprocity 　the tendency for one person's intimacy of self-disclosure to match that of a conversational partner.

歧視

discrimination 　unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members.

轉移

displacement 　the redirection of aggression to a target other than the source of the frustration. Generally, the new target is a safer or more socially acceptable target.

留面子技術

door-in-the-face technique 　a strategy for gaining a concession. After someone first turns down a large request (the door-in-the-face), the same requester counteroffers with a more reasonable request.

向下社會比較

downward social comparison 　comparing with others who are worse, or worse off, may trigger improved feelings about oneself.

雙重態度

dual attitudes 　differing implicit (automatic) and explicit (consciously controlled) attitudes toward the same object. Verbalized explicit attitudes may change with education and persuasion; implicit attitudes change slowly, with practice that forms new habits.

E

利己主義

egoism 　a motive (supposedly underlying all behavior) to increase one's own welfare. The opposite of altruism, which aims to increase another's welfare.

共情

empathy 　the vicarious experience of another's feelings; putting oneself in another's shoes.

地位平等的接觸

equal-status contact 　contact on an equal basis. Just as a relationship between people of unequal status breeds attitudes consistent with their relationship, so do relationships between those of equal status. Thus, to reduce prejudice, interracial contact should be between persons equal in status.

公平

equity 　a condition in which the outcomes people receive from a relationship are proportional to what they contribute to it. Note: Equitable outcomes needn't always be equal outcomes.

種族中心主義

ethnocentrism 　a belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic and cultural group, and a corresponding disdain for all other groups.

評價顧忌

evaluation apprehension 　concern for how others are evaluating us.

進化心理學

evolutionary psychology 　the study of the evolution of behavior using principles of natural selection.

實驗現實主義

e8perimental realism 　degree to which an experiment absorbs and involves its participants.

實驗研究

e8perimental research 　studies that seek clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulating one or more factors (independent variables) while controlling others (holding them constant).

解釋風格

explanatory style 　one's habitual way of explaining life events. A negative, pessimistic, depressive explanatory style attributes failures to stable, global, and internal causes.

F

虛假普遍性效應

false consensus effect 　the tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and one's undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors.

虛假獨特性效應

false uniqueness effect 　the tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desirable or successful behaviors.

現場研究

field research 　research done in natural, real-life settings outside the laboratory.

登門檻現象

foot-in-the-door phenomenon 　the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

搭集體便車

free riders 　people who benefit from the group but give little in return.

挫折

frustration 　the blocking of goal-directed behavior.

挫折攻擊理論

frustration aggression theory 　the theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggress.

基本歸因錯誤

fundamental attribution error 　the tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and overestimate dispositional influences upon others' behavior. (Also called correspondence bias , because we so often see behavior as corresponding to a disposition.)

G

性別

gender 　in psychology, the characteristics, whether biological or socially influenced, by which people define male and female. Because“sex”is a biological category, social psychologists sometimes refer to biologically based gender differences as“sex differences.”

性別角色

gender role 　a set of behavior expectations (norms) for males and females.

逐步、互惠、互動地減少緊張

GRIT 　acronym for“graduated and reciprocated initiatives in tension reduction”—a strategy designed to de-escalate international tensions.

群體

group 　two or more people who, for longer than a few moments, interact with and influence one another and perceive one another as“us.”

群體極化

group polarization 　group-produced enhancement of members' preexisting tendencies; a strengthening of the members' average tendency, not a split within the group.

群體服務偏見

group-serving bias 　explaining away outgroup members' positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions (while excusing such behavior by one's own group).

群體思維

groupthink 　“The mode of thinking that persons engage in when concurrence-seeking becomes so dominant in a cohesive in-group that it tends to override realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action.”—Irving Janis (1971).

H

健康心理學

health psychology 　a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine.

直覺

heuristic 　a rule-of-thumb strategy that enables quick, efficient judgments.

事後聰明式偏見

hindsight bias 　the tendency to exaggerate, after learning an outcome, one's ability to have foreseen how something turned out. Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon .

敵意性攻擊行為

hostile aggression 　aggression driven by anger and performed as an end in itself (also called affective aggression).

假設

hypothesis 　a testable proposition that describes a relationship that may exist between events.

I

控制錯覺

illusion of control 　perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one's control or as more controllable than they are.

透明度錯覺

illusion of transparency 　the illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by others.

錯覺相關

illusory correlation 　(1) perception of a relationship where none exists, or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists. (2) A false impression that two variables correlate.

自變量

independent variable 　the experimental factor that a researcher manipulates.

個人主義

individualism 　giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.

信息影響

informational influence 　conformity occurring when people accept evidence about reality provided by other people.

知會同意

informed consent 　an ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

討好

ingratiation 　the use of strategies, such as flattery, by which people seek to gain another's favor.

內群體

ingroup 　“us”—a group of people who share a sense of belonging, a feeling of common identity.

內群體偏見

ingroup bias 　the tendency to favor one's own group.

不安全型依戀

insecure attachment 　attachments marked by anxiety, ambivalence, and possessiveness.

本能行為

instinctive behavior 　an innate, unlearned behavior pattern exhibited by all members of a species.

工具性攻擊行為

instrumental aggression 　aggression that is a means to some other end.

理由不足效應

insufficient justification effect 　reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is“insufficient.”

整合性協議

integrative agreements 　win-win agreements that reconcile both parties' interests to their mutual benefit.

交互作用

interaction 　the effect of one factor (such as biology) depends on another factor (such as environment).

J

公正世界現象

just-world phenomenon 　the tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

K

親緣選擇

kin selection 　the idea that evolution has selected altruism toward one's close relatives to enhance the survival of mutually shared genes.

L

領導

leadership 　the process by which certain group members motivate and guide the group.

習得性無助

learned helplessness 　the hopelessness and resignation learned when a human or animal perceives no control over repeated bad events.

控制點

locus of control 　the extent to which people perceive outcomes as internally controllable by their own efforts and actions or as externally controlled by chance or outside forces.

低價法策略

low-ball technique 　a tactic for getting people to agree to something. People who agree to an initial request will often still comply when the requester ups the ante. People who receive only the costly request are less likely to comply with it.

M

匹配現象

matching phenomenon 　the tendency for men and women to choose as partners those who are a“good match”in attractiveness and other traits.

調解

mediation 　an attempt by a neutral third party to resolve a conflict by facilitating communication and offering suggestions.

曝光效應

mere-exposure effect 　the tendency for novel stimuli to be liked more or rated more positively after the rater has been repeatedly exposed to them.

鏡像知覺

mirror-image perceptions 　reciprocal views of one another often held by parties in conflict; for example, each may view itself as moral and peace-loving and the other as evil and aggressive.

誤導信息效應

misinformation effect 　(1) incorporating“misinformation”into one's memory of the event, after witnessing an event and receiving misleading information about it. (2) Witnessing an event, receiving misleading information about it, and then incorporating the“misinformation”into one's memory of the event.

道德排除

moral exclusion 　the perception of certain individuals or groups as outside the boundary within which one applies moral values and rules of fairness. Moral inclusion is regarding others as within one's circle of moral concern.

現世實在論

mundane realism 　degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations.

N

自然選擇

natural selection 　the evolutionary process by which nature selects traits that best enable organisms to survive and reproduce in particular environmental niches.

自然主義的謬論

naturalist fallacy 　the error of defining what is good in terms of what is observable. For example: What's typical is normal; what's normal is good.

認知需求

need for cognition 　the motivation to think and analyze. Assessed by agreement with items such as“the notion of thinking abstractly is displeasing to me”and disagreement with items such as“I only think as hard as I have to”.

歸屬需求

need to belong 　a motivation to bond with others in relationships that provide ongoing, positive interactions.

非零和博弈

non-zero-sum games 　games in which outcomes need not sum to zero. With cooperation, both can win; with competition, both can lose. (Also called mixed-motive situations .)

規範性影響

normative influence 　conformity based on a person's desire to fulfill others' expectations, often to gain acceptance.

規範

norms 　rules for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe“proper”behavior. (In a different sense of the word, norms also describe what most others do—what is normal .)

O

服從

obedience 　acting in accord with a direct order.

外群體

outgroup 　“them”—a group that people perceive as distinctively different from or apart from their ingroup.

外群體同質效應

outgroup homogeneity effect 　perception of outgroup members as more similar to one another than are ingroup members. Thus“they are alike; we are diverse.”

過度自信現象

overconfidence phenomenon 　the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs.

過度辯護效應

overjustification effect 　the result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their action as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing.

同種偏差

own-race bias 　the tendency for people to more accurately recognize faces of their own race.

P

激情之愛

passionate love 　a state of intense longing for union with another. Passionate lovers are absorbed in one another, feel ecstatic at attaining their partner's love, and are disconsolate on losing it.

說服的外周途徑

peripheral route to persuasion 　persuasion that occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness.

個人空間

personal space 　the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies. Its size depends on our familiarity with whoever is near us.

說服

persuasion 　the process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors.

外表吸引力的刻板印象

physical-attractiveness stereotype 　the presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well: What is beautiful is good.

人眾無知

pluralistic ignorance 　a false impression of how other people are thinking, feeling, or responding.

可能的自我

possible selves 　images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future.

偏見

prejudice 　a negative prejudgment of a group and its individual members.

首因效應

primacy effect 　other things being equal, information presented first usually has the most influence.

啟動

priming 　activating particular associations in memory.

親社會行為

prosocial behavior 　positive, constructive, helpful social behavior; the opposite of antisocial behavior.

接近性

proximity 　geographical nearness. Proximity (more precisely,“functional distance”) powerfully predicts liking.

R

種族歧視

racism 　(1) an individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given race, or (2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given race.

隨機分配

random assignment 　the process of assigning participants to the conditions of an experiment such that all persons have the same chance of being in a given condition. (Note the distinction between random assignment in experiments and random sampling in surveys. Random assignment helps us infer cause and effect. Random sampling helps us generalize to a population.)

隨機取樣

random sample 　survey procedure in which every person in the population being studied has an equal chance of inclusion.

逆反

reactance 　(1) a motive to protect or restore one's sense of freedom. Reactance arises when someone threatens our freedom of action. (2) The desire to assert one's sense of freedom.

現實群體衝突理論

realistic group conflict theory 　the theory that prejudice arises from competition between groups for scarce resources.

近因效應

recency effect 　information presented last sometimes has the most influence. Recency effects are less common than primacy effects.

互惠規範

reciprocity norm 　an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.

趨均數迴歸

regression toward the average 　the statistical tendency for extreme scores or extreme behavior to return toward one's average.

相對剝奪

relative deprivation 　the perception that one is less well off than others to whom one compares oneself.

代表性直覺

representativeness heuristic 　the tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone or something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member.

吸引的回報理論

reward theory of attraction 　the theory that we like those whose behavior is rewarding to us or whom we associate with rewarding events.

角色

role 　a set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave.

S

安全型依戀

secure attachment 　attachments rooted in trust and marked by intimacy.

自我肯定理論

self-affirmation theory 　a theory that (a) people often experience a self-image threat after engaging in an undesirable behavior; and that (b) they can compensate by affirming another aspect of the self. Threaten people's self-concept in one domain and they will compensate by either refocusing or by doing good deeds in some other domain.

自我覺知

self-awareness 　a self-conscious state in which attention focuses on oneself. It makes people more sensitive to their own attitudes and dispositions.

自我概念

self-concept 　a person's answers to the question“Who am I?”

自我表露

self-disclosure 　revealing intimate aspects of one-self to others.

自我效能

self-efficacy 　a sense that one is competent and effective, distinguished from self-esteem, one's sense of self-worth. A bombardier might feel high self-efficacy and low self-esteem.

自尊

self-esteem 　a person's overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth.

自我實現的預言

self-fulfilling prophecy 　a belief that leads to its own fulfillment.

自我監控

self-monitoring 　being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one's performance to create the desired impression.

自我知覺理論

self-perception theory 　the theory that when we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them much as would someone observing us, by looking at our behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs.

自我展示

self-presentation 　the act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways designed to create a favorable impression or an impression that corresponds to one's ideals.

自我參照效應

self-reference effect 　the tendency to process efficiently and remember well information related to oneself.

自我圖式

self-schema 　beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of self-relevant information.

自我服務偏見

self-serving bias 　the tendency to perceive oneself favorably.

性別歧視

sexism 　(1) an individual's prejudicial attitudes and discriminatory behavior toward people of a given sex, or (2) institutional practices (even if not motivated by prejudice) that subordinate people of a given sex.

情境歸因

situational attribution 　attributing behavior to the environment.

睡眠者效應

sleeper effect 　a delayed impact of a message. Occurs when an initially discounted message becomes effective, as we remember the message but forget the reason for discounting it.

社會比較

social comparison 　evaluating one's abilities and opinions by comparing oneself to others.

社會支配性取向

social dominance orientation 　a motivation to have one's group be dominant over other social groups.

社會交換理論

social-exchange theory 　the theory that human interactions are transactions that aim to maximize one's rewards and minimize one's costs.

社會助長作用

social facilitation 　(1) original meaning—the tendency of people to perform simple or well-learned tasks better when others are present; (2) current meaning—strengthening of dominant (prevalent, likely) responses owing to the presence of others.

社會同一性

social identity 　the“we”aspect of our self-concept. The part of our answer to“Who am I?”that comes from our group memberships. Examples:“I am Australian.”“I am Catholic.”

社會型領導

social leadership 　leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support.

社會學習理論

social learning theory 　the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded and punished.

社會懈怠

social loafing 　the tendency for people to exert less effort when they pool their efforts toward a common goal than when they are individually accountable.

社會心理學

social psychology 　the scientific study of how people think about, influence, and relate to one another.

社會表徵

social representations 　socially shared beliefs, and widely held ideas and values, including our assumptions and cultural ideologies. Our social representations help us make sense of our world.

焦點效應

spotlight effect 　the belief that others are paying more attention to one's appearance and behavior than they really are.

刻板印象

stereotype 　a belief about the personal attributes of a group of people. Stereotypes are sometimes overgeneralized, inaccurate, and resistant to new information.

刻板印象威脅

stereotype threat 　a disruptive concern, when facing a negative stereotype, that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype. Unlike self-fulfilling prophecies that hammer one's reputation into one's self-concept, stereotype threat situations have immediate effects.

再分群法

subgrouping 　accommodating groups of individu-als who deviate from one's stereotype by forming a new stereotype about this subset of the group.

再分類法

subtyping 　accommodating individuals who deviate from one's stereotype by splitting off a subgroup stereotype (such as“middle-class Blacks”or“feminist women”). Subtyping protects stereotypes.

超級目標

superordinate 　goal a shared goal that necessitates cooperative effort; a goal that overrides people's differences from one another.

T

任務型領導

task leadership 　leadership that organizes work, sets standards, and focuses on goals.

理論

theory 　an integrated set of principles that explains and predicts observed events.

公共地悲劇

Tragedy of the Commons 　the“commons”is any shared resource, including air, water, energy sources, and food supplies. The tragedy occurs when individuals consume more than their share, with the cost of their doing so dispersed among all, causing the ultimate collapse—the tragedy—of the commons.

情緒的兩因素理論

two-factor theory of emotion 　arousal × label = emotion.

溝通的兩個流程

two-step flow of communication 　the process by which media influence often occurs through opinion leaders, who in turn influence others.

U

向上社會比較

upward social comparison 　comparing with others who are better, or better off, may trigger feelings of relative deprivation.